Shingles and Its Treatment

Appearing on one side Since Herpes zoster (i.e. Shingles) lays dormant in the nerve tissue of the body, it usually travels from a person’s ganglia to the various axons and then reaches only a particular portion of the skin (Is that rash shingles?, 2013). While it is still unknown why it is isolated to particular areas, it often occurs on the chest, back or in some areas of the face in a belt like pattern.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Shingles and Its Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Is Shingles Contagious? Shingles (varicella zoster) is not contagious in the conventional sense due to its nature as the virus that causes chicken pox. What you have to understand is that once a person gets chicken pox and gets better, the virus goes into a dormant state wherein it can either â€Å"sleep† throughout that person’s life and never resurge or it can â€Å"awaken†. This can occur as a result of a weakening in the immune system, stress or the normal aging process that occurs in the body, however, this â€Å"awakening† does not occur in most individuals (Calianno O’Shea, 2013). While anyone who has developed chickenpox during their childhood has the â€Å"possibility† of getting shingles, it takes a combination of factors such as stressors, weak immunity response mechanisms and other such characteristics to cause a person to develop shingles in the first place. Do note though that an exception to this are instances where a person has not had chickenpox or received the chickenpox vaccine which makes it possible for the virus to spread (Gan, Tian Tey, 2013). However, you cannot actually catch shingles through this method, a person who has shingles cannot give someone else shingles, rather, the virus is merely transmitted resulting in either a benign state (i.e. no effect whatsoever on the body) or that individual would develop chicken pox an d not shingles if they had not had chicken pox in the past (Gan, Tian Tey, 2013). Treatment methods The current treatment methods for shingles are varied based on the severity of the occurrence. What you have to understand is the rash is also associated with considerable pain and, as such, it is often necessary to address both issues. The first method of treatment that is normally utilized are anti viral drugs such as famciclovir and valacyclovir which help to control the virus. While this may help treat the virus, the issue of pain still needs to be addressed. This is often solved through the use of nerve blockers in the form of anesthetic drugs or steroids.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What is post herpetic neuralgia? Post herpetic neuralgia is defined as a rare manifestation of shingles where severe pain associated with the rash can last longer than a few weeks. In most cases of shingles, the rash tends to disappear after a few weeks; however, in certain rare instances the pain associated with it can last for months if not years ((Is that rash shingles?, 2013). This can actually cause a considerable decrease in a person’s quality of life given the pain and irritation associated with the condition. Fortunately, there have been a few treatments that were developed in the past few years that help to address such an issue. Qutenza, which is a type of highly concentrated capsaicin (i.e. the chemical found in chili peppers that give them their characteristic heat), was found to provide considerable relief to a patient with post herpetic neuralgia for up to a period of 3 months. The qutenza treatment normally takes 60 minutes of application in a doctor’s office and is relatively inexpensive. Other methods of helping people with post herpetic neuralgia come in the form of an anesthetic drug which is applied on the peripheral nerves and helps to dull the pain. Shingles Vaccine While the current shingles vaccine known as Zostavax helps to reduce the instances of shingles in people by 50%, the vaccine itself supposedly weakens over time and is not lifelong thereby creating a potential problem for people of advanced ages (Keating, 2013). Reference List Calianno, C., O’Shea, S. (2013). Herpes zoster in older adults. Nurse Practitioner,  38(8), 10-14. Gan, E., Tian, E., Tey, H. (2013). Management of Herpes Zoster and Post-Herpetic Neuralgia. American Journal Of Clinical Dermatology, 14(2), 77-85. Is that rash shingles?. (2013). Harvard Health Letter, 39(1), 6.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Shingles and Its Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Keating, G. (2013). Shingles (Herpes Zoster) Vaccine (Zostavax): A Review of Its Use in the Prevention of Herpes Zoster and Postherpetic Neuralgia in Adults Aged ≠¥50 Years. Drugs, 73(11), 122 7-1244. This essay on Shingles and Its Treatment was written and submitted by user Trystan Christensen to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

204 Week 1 Individual Paper Essays

Cja/204 Week 1 Individual Paper Essays Cja/204 Week 1 Individual Paper Essay Cja/204 Week 1 Individual Paper Essay Criminal Justice System CJA/204 July 25, 2011 Criminal Justice System Crime is a part of society’s daily routine. Crime can directly affect a person, place, or any witnesses of the said incident. Crime is defined as â€Å"conduct in violation of the criminal laws of the state, the federal government, or a local jurisdiction, for which there is no legally acceptable justification or excuse. † (Defining Crime, 2011) Crime is usually categorized as either a property or personal crime. Personal crimes include crimes of violence such as murder and robbery. With a personal crime you will have a perpetrator and a victim. Property crimes are just that, crimes against a piece of property where there is no use or threat of force against a person. The most common crime types are violent crimes, white collar and corporate crime, organized crime, and victimless crime. The first line of defense against crime lays with law enforcement personnel. Law enforcement is the first part of what makes up our criminal justice system. The criminal justice system has three main components including police, courts, and corrections. Police have an unending battle against crime, drugs, and other forms of social dysfunction. The police main duty is to protect the public; however the relationship between law enforcement and the public community is sometimes troubled. Some of the duties of law enforcement are to investigate law violations, gather evidence, make arrests, solve crimes, and then assist with the successful prosecution of suspects. Upon the law enforcement officer making an arrest the case is then presented to the court system. The district attorney office handles most cases of the criminal nature, besides some misdemeanor crimes such as minor traffic violations. Law enforcement usually develop a good working relationship with their local district attorney’s office which promotes quality officer related testimony and helps to lead to the successful prosecution of suspects. All suspects however are innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. Additionally, the accused have certain rights that must be adhered to. The include the right to speedy trial, the right to legal counsel, the right against self incrimination, the right not to be ried twice for the same crime, the right to know their charges, the right to have witnesses cross examined, and the right against excessive bail being placed. The court system is where an accused person is either convicted of the accused crime or found not guilty. There are many different levels of courts in the United States, but they all dispense justice and help en sure that officials in the justice system follow the law when conducting their duties. There are two types of courts that operate in our justice system including state courts and federal courts. Federal courts handle violations of federal law while state courts handle crimes against the state. The state has two different types of court proceedings, one being a trial court and the other an appellate court if an appeal is filed. The federal court system consists of United States district court, U. S. Court of Appeals, and the U. S. Supreme Court. The court system usually consists of a prosecuting attorney, a defense attorney, an unbiased judge, and occasionally a jury who renders a verdict for if a jury trial was elected. Upon a conviction in either the state or federal court system, the defendant is then processed into the corrections department of the criminal justice system. For federal crimes the convicted will be placed in a federal correctional institution and in state institutions for crimes against the state. Once a person has been arrested, tried, and sentenced, the correctional process begins. America’s correctional system includes jails, prisons, parole, probation and other forms of sentencing imposed. The corrections department is also responsible for the care and safety of the inmates that they house. Correctional officers are the correctional system’s front line. They are responsible for the supervision and safety of all housed inmates. This task can be very demanding and risky. Correctional officers have to deal first hand with violent offenders, some of whom are serving life sentences and do not worry about repercussions from an incident with a correctional officer. Upon completion of a sentence, an inmate is released back into society under the supervision of a parole officer. This officer is responsible for keeping track of the individual and ensuring compliance of any probation requirements. If an individual on probation violates any form of their parole it usually results with them being sent back to prison. This can prove to be a constant cycle with some individuals who can not adapt and conform to society. The criminal justice system is ultimately responsible for the prosecution and confinement of criminals, the upholding of state and federal laws, and the equal rights to accused suspects with a right to a fair trial. The system is responsible for the rehabilitation of convicted criminals and to reinsert them back into society when appropriate while monitoring their progress. For many, this cycle is constantly repeating itself and causing America’s justice system to become over populated and back logged resulting in the lack of appropriate case handling and prosecution of some individuals. Unless there are drastic changes to today’s justice system, this trend will continue. Reference Defining Crime. (2011). Retrieved from http://media. pearsoncmg. com

Marketing communications plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing communications plan - Essay Example This paper includes the analysis of the market situation, marketing and communications objectives, recommended strategy, targeting/segmentation issues, tactics and actions plans, and people resources implications; lastly, is the deployment of the budget and rationale, the critical path of the plan activities and a crucial part of monitoring and measurement activities. The digital audio device market constitutes an annual growth rate of 25% in the hi-fi product market. â€Å"Portable digital audio devices...are becoming very popular with young people, with a projected worldwide market size of 20 million units by 2005† (Mourjopoulos, 2005, p.303). Blackberry maker Research in Motion (RIM) is the chosen based company that will enter the hi-fi audio market. In terms of market gap, Blackberry is stable and one of the fastest growing companies in the consumer electronics market. In the recent Smartphone market shares survey, Blackberry is in the second place with a market share of 17.8% (What hi-fi? Sounds and Vision, 2010). In the worldwide mobile phone market, Blackberry is at the fourth place with a 100 millionth shipped device. There are many predictions that Blackberry will be left behind by its competitors because â€Å"RIM services are pretty left behind with less attractiveness as well as loyalty from both developers and customers† (TMart Es, 2010). Because competition is very tight, Blackberry is now in total market share protection mode just like by making some of its product inexpensive (Dunewood, 2010). With this kind of performance, rest assured that it would not be difficult for RIM to introduce the new range of hi-fi audio products under Blackberry’s brand name. Blackberry’s usual target market is the business professionals and high income executives; however, the younger age groups will be added as the new target consumer group for hi-fi equipments. The range will be targeting the young generation because these

The person who taught me a lot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The person who taught me a lot - Essay Example Responsibility to oneself and the environment ensures that one sustainably utilizes the available resources. Responsibility entails being wary of one’s roles and responsibilities and undertaking them to the expected levels. In whatever capacity one operates, there would be tasks that would be expected of such a person to undertake. Most of the times, there would be standards against which the execution of such tasks and observation of the given responsibilities would be benchmarked. At least attaining the set standards gives one acclamation from those directly impacted or even from oneself. Of importance to note here is the fact that being responsible saves one the cost of having to correct the negative impact of not observing such responsibilities. This, I learnt, is one way of saving resources in life. For example, if five pens are to take me through an academic year successfully, responsible use of these pens would see me complete the year successfully with the provision fo r any loses being my savings for the year. Savings mark the beginning of entrepreneurship according to my brother. It was through his personal savings that he got a considerable portion of his initial capital injection into the consultancy business. Thus, responsibility ensures proper utilization of the available resources. Another important lesson learnt is that informed career choices open one up to tap into the available opportunities. From the interview, I appreciated that a majority of us choose careers because of the life we see professionals in various fields live or because of the way the media depicts these careers. This is a misleading approach to making career choices since what we see could not necessarily be what it appears to be. To appropriately choose a career, it would be important to note down the activities that interest one in life. These activities would point towards the duties of specific careers. From these specific careers, it would be important to conduct r esearch from credible sources including occupational outlook handbooks from the relevant government agencies. These sources give information on the requirements of the selected careers, the roles involved and even the salary ranges. With this information, one would understand what subjects to major in and even what different opportunities would be available for the various educational levels. Furthermore, it gives information on related careers which could be more satisfactory than the initially prospected career. Finally, having established in life, transformational leadership plays a critical role in motivating the performance of followers. My elder brother referred to the argument by Bass and Riggio (127) on transformational leadership causing a strong employee connection to an organization. Steve Jobs, the founder of the famous Apple Inc., provides an appropriate example of a transformational leader. Apple became a global brand in information and communication technology because Jobs made the vision of the organization known to the employees and involved the employees in the company’s decision making. This made employees connect to the vision that Jobs had for Apple, hence making the organization post the tremendous success it has over years. In a similar manner, the organizations that I would lead, no matter how small, would require

INNOVATION (Strategic alliances) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

INNOVATION (Strategic alliances) - Essay Example In business, innovation can be defined as the exploitation of new ideas that find acceptance in the market. These ideas, most often, are incorporated into new processes, technology, best practices and designs (Sarkar 2007, p.2). Some of these ideas may end up causing a complete overhaul to an organization’s operation and range of products. Most of the innovated products are based on the ideas of others or a modification of existing products. In summary, innovation process encompasses; getting a new idea or modifying an old one, reorganization of existing opportunities or those that can be promoted, choice of best alternatives and application of the process and the idea (Sarkar 2007, p.2). Innovation may be as a result of the need to meet the needs of consumers or improve the way of doing things. Companies that fail to embrace innovation have often found themselves left behind by their competitors, leading to the loss of their market niche. The focus on the theories of innovation varies because there are different views on the process of innovation and the factors that lead to the development of innovation. The theories may focus on; (a) technological development, R&D and technical research functions in a company, (b) the individual who creates and develops the new elements, and (c) issues of innovation in the market place (Sundo 1998, p.4). It involves the exchange of technology between two or more companies. Strategic alliances are characterized by risk sharing and mutual commitment in respect to the attainment of specified economic and technological goals and objectives. These alliances tend to arise from the willingness and desire of one firm to assist the other in overall development of the firm business and/or exploitation of certain technological assets portfolio. An example is when the firms in the alliance want to (a) form a joint venture in research and distribution, or (b) enter a joint development agreement, or (c) enter

Effect of Tulsi and Neem Extract on Mosquito Larvae

Effect of Tulsi and Neem Extract on Mosquito Larvae Research question: What are the effects of medicinal plants like Ocimum sanctum (tulsi) and Azadirachta indica (neem) extract on the mortality of Culex larvae? ABSTRACT The effect of Neem and Tulsi on mosquito larvae. The project is aimed at finding natural pesticides or bio-pesticides that effectively control the mosquito population by killing mosquito larvae. They could be used as alternatives to the current pesticides used that have adverse effects on the environment and other species besides the target pest. Mosquitoes are hosts for a very large number of diseases and therefore keeping larvae under control and disallowing the emergence of adult mosquitoes is essential. Two plant extracts have been tested; Neem and Tulsi. The initial hypothesis was that both extracts would have some effect on the larval development and cause mortality in the larvae due to the properties of both plants. The secondary initial hypothesis was that Neem extract would be significantly more effective in killing the larvae than Tulsi at the same percentage. Concentrations of 1% to 10% of each extract were prepared and 10 trials each performed with 10 larvae were undertak en. The samples were checked on after 12 hours and once again after 24 hours and the number of larvae killed in each case was recorded. The results were conclusive and both extracts were very effective at killing larvae at 10% with Neem killing an average of 10 larvae out of 10 and Tulsi 9.6  ± 0.52. However t-values showed that the initial hypothesis stating that Neem would be more effective at all concentrations was incorrect and only 2%, 9% and 10% were significantly more effective in 24 hours with t values of 3.13, 2.92 and 2.43 respectively (> table value of 2.10). This means that in 2%, 9% and 10% concentrations, Neem should be used instead of Tulsi as it is significantly better. This is all very exciting as environmentally safer pesticides can be developed from these two plant extracts. 1. Introduction Research question: What are the effects of medicinal plants like Ocimum sanctum (tulsi) and Azadirachta indica (neem) extract on the mortality of Culex larvae? The conservative pesticides are augmented to combat complicated pest problems in mosquitoes. In human health during the past few decades these pesticides played an important role in the inhibition of diseases caused by mosquitoes either by inactivating or killing these mosquitoes. Later on when these pesticides are getting accumulated in the environment proved to be hazardous to the environment and mankind. Frequent application of synthetic organic insecticides resulted into pest resistance and outbreak. Most of the insecticidal compound falls within four main classes namely organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids. Out of these the major classes of insecticides, the insecticides used in present situation are organophosphates and carbamates. There are problems of pesticides resistance and negative impacts on non-target organisms including man and the environment.[1] Environment problems due to the insecticides and pesticides such as destruction of beneficial organisms, non-target pest, some of the pesticide residues in the host plant resulting in stunted grow or killing other organisms have come to an end. This work is basically taken up by some of the herbal plants. These herbal plants possess some of the active ingredients which are eco-friendly but simultaneously have a severe effect on the mosquito populations.[2] Medicinal plants are the most promising source and under extensive trails for their biological activity against various mosquito larvae. During the last 10 to 15 years, interest in botanical insecticides has increased to look for substitutions for synthetic insecticides with those based on naturally occurring substances. The use of botanicals in pest management is not only useful for suppression of pest population but also helps to maintain the sound ecological balance.[3] BOTANICALS IN USE The groups of plant possessing insecticidal substances are enormous. More than 2400 species of the plants in India possess insecticidal properties3. In the middle of the 17th century, most of the economically important natural plant compounds obtained from the plants like neem, tulsi, adathoda, chrysanthemum, turmeric, garlic, tridax etc. are used in commercial insect control. Despite the relative safety of the well-known botanical insecticides, most of these substances have their drawback hindering large-scale application. The chemicals obtained from these plants are unstable in the sunlight and are rapidly metabolized thus limiting their potency and application.[4] Botanical insecticides break down readily in soil and are not stored in animal and plant tissue. Often their effects are not as long lasting as those of synthetic insecticides and some of these products may be very difficult to find. The plant parts used for extraction or assay were the leaves, roots, tubers, fruits, seeds, flowers, the whole plant, bark, sap, pods and wood. The most commonly utilized parts were the leaves, roots. The plant families Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae contain most of the insecticidal plant species reported. Recently several other plants viz. Neem, Adathoda, Chrysanthemum, Turmeric, Onion, Garlic, Ocimum, Ginger and some other plants have been reported as insecticidal plants which can be used in insecticide preparation. The leaf extracts of Tulsi (Ocimum basilicum, O. sanctum) and vetiver (Vetivera zizanoides) are useful in controlling leaf miners in potato, beans, eggplant, tomato, chilies, etc. Some of the plants having herbal insecticide princip les are presented on table. Source of Plant Nature of action Chemical Group Plant parts Azadirachta indica Contact poison Azadirachtin Leaves, seed Ocimum sanctum Contact, Repellent Tulsin Leaves Chrysanthemum Contact, Repellent Pyrethrin I Flower, seed Tridax procumbens Contact poison Flower Zingiber officinale Repellent zingiberene Rhizome Among all the important insecticidal plants, Neem (Azadirachta indica) is the most promising source of bio-pesticide and its various formulations are extensively used for pest control.[5] Neem leaves, stems, seeds and oil have been used for pest control in sericulture.[6] The limonoids present in it and its products have made it a harmless to mankind while functioning as insecticide, bactericide, fungicide, pesticide etc. It is likely to provide a solution to many of pest and disease problem in sericulture.[7] Generally, extracts of plant leaves or seed are prepared and sprayed; otherwise, seeds are dried under sunshade, powdered finely and applied as dust. More than 20 Neem based biopesticides are available in the market (Table 3). Neem gets biodegraded in a matter of weeks when exposed to sunlight or in soil. Neem products are highly photodegradable and normally degrade within a week. No problem of development of pest resistance and resurgence has been reported from neem products. Hence they have characteristics suitable for IPM strategy. Much of the informations are available on insecticidal properties of plants having some sort of toxic property against insects. The plant parts to be used should be removable: leaves, flowers or fruit and harvesting should not mean destruction of the plant. Azadirachta indica: Neem is perhaps the most well known of all herbs and has been used in ayurveda in India for centuries. The active ingredient in Azadirachta indica (neem) is azadirachtin. It a member of the Meliaceae family and is a botanical cousin of mahogany. Neem is very hard and virile. Neem is especially useful due to its climatic tolerance that allows it to be grown all over the world though it is usually found in tropical regions. It has insecticidal, antifeedant, growth regulating and development-modifying properties and has properties that make it attractive in insect control. It reduces fecundity and longevity as well as increased development time of immature insects. On insects it has been shown to act as a growth retardant and cause molting disorders, change of behavior and morphogenetic defects. Mosquito control is essential as they act as carriers for malaria, filariasis and a host of other diseases as well as being a nuisance. There is a high demand for a less environmentally harmful insecticide as the ones currently used have high neurotoxic effects. Recent studies have also demonstrated neem-induced effects on vitellogenesis and severe degeneration of follicle cells during oogenesis in mosquitoes. It also has several medical properties such as a cure blood morbidity, biliary afflictions, itching, skin ulcers, burning sensations and pthysis. It is also an effective cure against ringworm, eczema and scabies. In English the tree is known as margosa and attains a maximum height of 40 to 50 metres. Ocimum Sanctum: Tulsi is an aromatic plant in the Lamiaceae family. Tulsi has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda due to its diverse healing properties. Tulsis extracts are used in ayurvedic remedies for common colds, headaches, stomach disorders, inflammation, heart disease, various forms of poisoning, and malaria. Traditionally, tulsi is taken in many forms: as herbal tea, dried powder, fresh leaf, or mixed with ghee. Essential oil extracted from Karpoora Tulsi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics, and is widely used in skin preparations due to its anti-bacterial activity. For centuries, the dried leaves of Tulsi have been mixed with stored grains to repel insects.[8] These plants in harmonious integration with other safe methods of pest control like biological control can provide eco-friendly and economically viable solutions for pest problems in near future. ADVANTAGES Plants producing the compounds having insect growth regulators (IGR), feeding deterrents, repellents and confusants activities are known by the farmer because most of the time they grow in the same general area. Some of these products may be these products act very quickly inhibiting insect feeding even though long term they do not cause insect death. Since most of these products have a stomach action and are rapidly decomposed they may be more selective to insect pests and less aggressive with natural enemies. Most of these compounds are not phytotoxic and have rapid action and low toxicity to mammals and plants. Resistance to these compounds is not developed as quickly as with synthetic insecticides. DISADVANTAGES Most of these products are not truly insecticides since many are merely insect deterrents and their effect is slow. They are rapidly degraded by UV light so that their residual action is short and breakdown is rapid, requiring more precise timing of and/or more frequent application. Not all plant insecticides are less toxic to other animals than the synthetic ones. They are not necessarily available and sometimes cost is more. Most of them have no established residue tolerances and there is lack of test data and sometimes lack of state registration of some materials. There are no legal registrations establishing their use. Not all recommendations followed by growers have been scientifically verified. The above statements are altered if you find anything that can be added or deleted you can do it. Insects adapt themselves to aquatic habitats inspite of their terrestrial origin. The aquatic and semi-aquatic insects are remarkable for their diversity of forms, reflecting adaptation to a wide variety of niches such as salt water pools, saline ponds, hot springs, high mountain lakes, large rivers, temporary and permanent ponds. Mosquitoes are known as vectors of the pathogens causing human diseases. They belong to the order Diptera; the true flies. Like all flies they have two wings but unlike other flies they have scales and the females have sucking proboscis. There are over 2500 species of mosquitoes. Culex mosquitoes are known to be painful and persistent biters and are a nuisance. The reason why I chose this topic is because the pesticides that are currently used in pest control contain chemicals that have diverse side effects on the environment and organisms other than the target pest. I decided to use natural substances found in nature and see if they would work as a form of pest control instead. I have used two extracts; Neem and Tulsi, in order to see which one was more effective in killing these mosquitoes. Neem, Tulsi and eucalyptus have been used as they are prevalent in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of Africa and Asia with a large mosquito population and there have been significant prospects of being used as an insecticide on a commercial scale due to their useful properties. Aim: In early literature mentioned above it was noted that the mosquitoes inhibit both temporary and fresh water stagnant bodies and they are found in abundance causing nuisance to the human population. The aim of the present study was undertaken on the following aspects 1. To determine the number of Culex larvae killed in 12 hours and 24 hours using different plant extracts like Neem and Tulsi in crude form. 2. To determine the number of Culex larvae killed in 12 hours and 24 hours by Neem and Tulsi under various concentrations (1%-10%). 3. To determine the statistical analysis t tests were performed. 2. Materials and Method 2.1. Materials / Equipments 250 ml beaker, Mortar and pestle, Pipette, Stirrer, Water, Fishing net (for catching larvae), Dropper, Watch glass, Petri dishes. Culex larvae: For the present study, the larvae of Culex mosquitoes were used throughout the investigation. These larvae were chosen because they were most abundant in the water bodies which are very active fast wriggling movement. The Culex larvae were collected from stagnant water bodies at Varthur Lake in Bangalore (fig.1) using a hand net. They were transported in plastic buckets containing clean water to the lab. Larvae were categorized based on their size as large and small. The large sized Culex larvae were about 0.7 cm and the small sized Culex larvae measured about 0.2cm in length. For the present study I have used only large sized larvae (3rd and 4th instars stage). Medicinal plants used as extracts: Botanical name Common name Medical Purposes Part of plant used Ocimum sanctum Tulsi Used to treat digestive problems Young leaves Azadirachta indica Neem Kills pathogens. Used to cure skin ailments. Young leaves Preparation of Stock solution: Azadirachta indica: [Neem] I collected neem leaves from my school campus. Only young leaves were collected and dried in the absence of sunlight in the shady region. The complete method of preparing 10% stock solution of this plant extract is mentioned below. 10 grams of dried young leaves were then grinded using mortar and pestle along with methanol and dried. Then add 100 ml of distilled water to make out 10% stock solution. Then the 10% neem stock solution was decanted after centrifugation. Now from this 10% stock solution different concentration solutions in percentage were prepared [ranging from 1% 10%] i.e., 10ml of 10% stock solution in 90ml of distilled water gives 1%, 20ml of 10% stock solution in 80ml of distilled water will give 2%, 30ml of 10% stock solution in 70ml of distilled water will give 3%, 40ml of 10% stock solution in 60ml of distilled water will give 4%, 50ml of 10% stock solution in 50ml of distilled water will give 5%, 60ml of 10% stock solution in 40ml of distilled water will give 6%, 70ml of 10% stock solution in 30ml of distilled water will give 7%, 80ml of 10% stock solution in 20ml of distilled water will give 8%, 90ml of 10% stock solution in 10ml of distilled water will give 9%, and for 10% the stock solution itself was used. Ocimum sanctum: [Tulsi] I collected Tulsi leaves from my school campus. Only young leaves were collected and dried in the absence of sunlight in the shady region. The complete method of preparing 10% stock solution and the different concentration of this plant extracts in percentage was done by same method as mentioned above in Neem. 2.2. Method / Procedure Mortality of larvae using crude plant extracts: 1. The large sized Culex larvae were taken in the petridishes. 2. 5 ml of crude plant extracts of neem and tulsi were taken in the different test tubes. 3. 10 larvae were introduced in each test tube at the same time. 4. Ten trails were carried out for the two different plant extract. 5. The number of larvae killed was recorded for 1hr, 12hr and 24 hr. 6. Larvae were feed with dog biscuit powder. 7. Comparative analysis was carried out graphically between the two plant extracts at different time period. Mortality of larvae using different concentration of plant extracts: 1. The large sized Culex larvae were collected and separated in the petri dishes. 2. 5 ml of 1% Neem extract was pipetted in the test tube using a graduated pipette. 3. 10 Culex larvae were introduced and the time was noted. 4. Ten trials were carried out at the same time for different concentration. 5. The larval mortality was recorded for 12 hours and 24 hours. 6. The same procedure was followed for different concentrations [2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9% 10%] of the Neem extract. 7. During this experiment the larvae was feed with dog biscuits in powdered form. 8. The above mentioned procedure was also carried out using Tulsi plant extract. 9. A comparative study of larval mortality was made by using these two plants extract on the Culex mosquito larvae. The percentage of mortality (which will give us an indication of the effectiveness of the extract) will be calculated using the following formula. Percentage of mortality = Number of dead larvaeNumber of larvae introduced X 100 2.3. Variables Dependant variable- Number of larvae killed Independent variable-Different concentration of neem extract and tulsi extract, different time period [1hr, 12 hrs, 24 hrs] Controlled variable-Number of larvae, Volume of water, Temperature, food 2.4. Hypothesis Hypothesis 1 Null Hypothesis (Ho): Neem and Tulsi have no significant the mortality of the Culex larvae. Positive hypothesis (H1): Neem and Tulsi have a significant effect on the mortality of the Culex larvae. Hypothesis 2 Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant difference in the rate of mortality between Neem and Tulsi plant extracts. Positive Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in the rate of mortality between Neem and Tulsi plant extracts. 3. Results 5.1 Mortality of larvae using crude plant extracts The Culex larvae were exposed to different plant extracts in crude form to study the mortality rate. The number of Culex larvae killed was recorded after 1 hour, 12 hours and 24 hours separately (Table 1). In one hour the mean number of larvae killed by Neem was 4.9 ±0.74 and for Tulsi it was 3.5 ±1.08. As time progresses the difference in effectiveness becomes less and the two extracts are approximately equal. The crude extract of Neem was more effective than Tulsi in one hour duration. At 12 hours the mean number of mosquitoes killed were 9.2 ±1.14 and 8 ±1.05 respectively. At 24 hours the Neem and Tulsi extracts showed almost the same level of effectiveness with mean values of 10 and 9.7 ±0.48 respectively. The crude form of Neem extract was significantly more effective than Tulsi in killing the Culex larvae in 1 hour and 12 hours. However in 24 hours there is no significant difference in the effectiveness of Neem and Tulsi plant extracts. 5.2 Mortality of larvae using different concentration of plant extracts: 5.2.1. Neem: The mortality of the larvae using different concentrations of Neem extract was recorded. At 1% concentration the mean number of larvae killed was noted to be 2.4  ± 0.52 in 12 hours and 3.5  ± 0.53 in 24 hours. At 10% concentration the highest mortality rate was recorded as 9.6  ± 0.52 and 10 for 12 hours and 24 hours respectively. As the concentration of the Neem extract increased, the mortality of the larvae also steadily increased (Table 2). 5.2.2. Tulsi: The mortality of the mosquitoes for Tulsi extract was recorded in the same way as Neem. At 1% concentration the mean number of larvae killed was noted to be 1.8  ± 0.63 in 12 hours and 3  ± 0.67 in 24 hours. At 10% concentration the highest mortality rate was recorded as 8.7  ± 0.67 and 9.6  ± 0.52 for 12 hours and 24 hours respectively. As the concentration of the Tulsi extract increased, the mortality of the larvae also steadily increased (Table 3). Table 1 : Mortality of larvae using crude plant extract Trail s No. of larvae killed 1 hour 12 hours 24 hours Neem Tulsi Neem Tulsi Neem Tulsi 1 5 2 10 9 10 10 2 4 3 10 6 10 9 3 5 5 7 7 10 10 4 6 4 10 8 10 10 5 4 3 8 7 10 9 6 5 4 10 9 10 10 7 6 4 9 8 10 10 8 4 5 10 9 10 10 9 5 3 8 9 10 10 10 5 2 10 8 10 9 Mean  ± S.D 4.9 ±0.74 3.5 ±1.08 9.2 ±1.14 8 ±1.05 10 ±0 9.7 ±0.48 T- test 3.38 2.45 1.96 Calculations T value= Degree of freedom = 20 -2 = 18 Level of significance= 0.05 Table t value = 2.10 Neem and Tulsi in 1 hour Calculated T value= 4.9- 3.5 / √(0.74)2 + (1.08)2 /10 = 3.38 Neem and Tulsi in 12 hours Calculated T value = 2.45 Neem and Tulsi in 24 hours Calculated T value = 1.96 Graph Showing the mortality of larvae using crude plant extract Table 2 Mortality of larvae using different concentration of Neem extracts S. No. Different concentration of Neem extract [%] Mean No. of larvae killed 12 hours 24 hours 1 1% 2.4  ± 0.52 3.5  ± 0.53 2 2% 3.2  ± 0.63 4.3  ± 0.48 3 3% 3.9  ± 0.57 5  ± 0.67 4 4% 4.6  ± 0.7 5.9  ± 0.74 5 5% 5.3  ± 0.67 6.4  ± 0.7 6 6% 5.8  ± 0.42 7  ± 0.67 7 7% 6.5  ± 0.85 7.5  ± 0.53 8 8% 7.4  ± 0.52 8.6  ± 0.7 9 9% 8.6  ± 0.84 9.8  ± 0.42 10 10% 9.6  ± 0.52 10 Graph Showing the mortality of larvae using Neem plant extract Table 3 Mortality of larvae using different concentration of Tulsi extracts S. No. Different Concentrations of Tulsi Extract Mean No. of larvae Killed 12 hours 24 hours 1 1% 1.8  ± 0.63 3  ± 0.67 2 2% 2.6  ± 0.7 3.6  ± 0.52 3 3% 3.3  ± 0.67 4.4  ± 0.7 4 4% 4.1  ± 0.74 5.3  ± 0.82 5 5% 4.8  ± 0.79 5.8  ± 0.79 6 6% 5.4  ± 0.52 6.7  ± 0.48 7 7% 6.2  ± 0.79 7.4  ± 0.7 8 8% 7  ± 0.67 8.1  ± 0.57 9 9% 7.9  ± 0.57 9.1  ± 0.63 10 10% 8.7  ± 0.67 9.6  ± 0.52 Graph Showing the mortality of larvae using Tulsi plant extract Table showing the comparative mean mortality of the larvae using Tulsi and Neem extracts Different Concentrations Mean No. of larvae Killed in 12 hours Mean No. of larvae Killed in 24 hours Tusli Neem Tulsi Neem 1% 1.8  ± 0.63 2.4  ± 0.52 3  ± 0.67 3.5  ± 0.53 2% 2.6  ± 0.7 3.2  ± 0.63 3.6  ± 0.52 4.3  ± 0.48 3% 3.3  ± 0.67 3.9  ± 0.57 4.4  ± 0.7 5  ± 0.67 4% 4.1  ± 0.74 4.6  ± 0.7 5.3  ± 0.82 5.9  ± 0.74 5% 4.8  ± 0.79 5.3  ± 0.67 5.8  ± 0.79 6.4  ± 0.7 6% 5.4  ± 0.52 5.8  ± 0.42 6.7  ± 0.48 7  ± 0.67 7% 6.2  ± 0.79 6.5  ± 0.85 7.4  ± 0.7 7.5  ± 0.53 8% 7  ± 0.67 7.4  ± 0.52 8.1  ± 0.57 8.6  ± 0.7 9% 7.9  ± 0.57 8.6  ± 0.84 9.1  ± 0.63 9.8  ± 0.42 10% 8.7  ± 0.67 9.6  ± 0.52 9.6  ± 0.52 10 Graph comparing number of larvae killed using both plant extracts in 12 hours Graph comparing number of larvae killed using both plant extracts in 24 hours T Values at Different concentrations of Neem and Tulsi extract Concentration of Neem and Tulsi Calculated t value in 12 hours Calculated t value in 24 hours 1% 2.32 1.85 2% 2.14 3.13 3% 2.16 1.96 4% 1.55 1.72 5% 1.53 1.80 6% 1.89 1.15 7% 0.82 0.36 8% 1.49 1.75 9% 2.18 2.92 10% 3.36 2.43 4. Discussion A t-test was performed for the values obtained for the comparison of the crude extracts. The t-test values for crude Neem and Tulsi extracts are effective if seeing if Neem is significantly more effective than Tulsi in a certain time period. The calculated t value for 1 hour is 3.38. This is higher than the table t value of 2.10. Hence in 1 hour Neem is significantly more effective in killing larvae. In 12 hours the calculated t value is 2.45 and therefore we can draw the same conclusion. However in 24 hours the calculated t value in 1.96 and thus there is no significant difference in the effectiveness of Neem and Tulsi. By this point it is evident that, as far as Hypothesis 1 is concerned, that both Neem and Tulsi are effective in killing mosquito larvae. With regard to the crude extract we can say that in 1 and 12 hour periods, Neem is more significantly more effective but not in 24 hours (Hypothesis 2). T-tests were also performed to compare the significant difference in mortality of Neem and Tulsi extracts at different concentrations. Separate t-tests were performed for 12 hours and 24 hours. As seen in the tables above the t-values are significant in 12 hours for 1%, 2% and 3%. They are significant as at these concentrations the calculated t values are greater than the table t value of 2.10. It is also observed in 9% and 10% concentrations in 12 hours. In 24 hours significance is observed in 2%, 9% and 10%. What these means is that for these concentrations in their respective time periods, Neem is significantly more effective than Tulsi in killing larvae. The main effect that Azadirachta indica has on larvae is the growth regulatory effect. It is because of this property that Neem acts as an excellent natural insecticide. Exposure of culex larvae to sub lethal doses prolongs the larval development and causes reduced pupal weight and oviposition. Neem works by intervening at several stages of the insects life. The ingredients present in Neem are approximately the same shape and structure of vital hormones for the insects. The larvae absorb these Neem compounds as if they were real hormones which blocks their endocrine systems. This leaves the insects so sonfused in brain and body that they cease to reproduce and thus the population plummets. Tulsi extract exhibits high mortality, especially during the molting process. The molting of larvae takes place under the influence of the ventral nerve cord neurosecretory cells. These cells release the tanning hormone. The extract may have an inhibiting effect on such cells. They may also act on epidermal cells that produce enzymes necessary for the circular oxidation process. Both plant extracts affect reproduction and inhibit the emergence of adult mosquitoes from their larvae. They also decrease the feeding time for larvae and cause less food to be ingested. This has been noted to cause a fall in the carbohydrate levels of the larvae. A study noted that the extracts cause the amount of DNA and RNA in the larvae to fall thus suggesting that the extracts may affect nucleic acid synthesis. The feeding in the larvae may have decreased due to indigestion caused by the plant extracts as they inhibit metabolic processes. [9] Both Ocimum sanctum and Azadirachta indica are available easily and in large quantities. They do not require professional handling, are inexpensive and safe which makes them very valuable as pesticides. Additionally Tulsi has properties that enable it to disinfect water. The extracts could help replace harmful pesticides used such as DDT as they are safe for non target animals and do not pose residue problems but are still effective in killing larvae and suppressing the adult mosquito population. In conclusion further effort should be taken to produce bio-pesticides from Neem or Tulsi as well as research to find other plants products that may be more ideal. UV rays may affect the Neem and Tulsi extracts thus making them ineffective so research should be done in order to find plant products that do not degrade in the presence of sunlight thus making them completely versatile. 5. Summary * The findings have important implications in the practical control of mosquito larvae, especially, in a polluted aquatic environment. * Ocimum sanctum and Azadirachta indica are the two plants out of which the extracts were prepared. * Solutions of concentrations varying from 1% to 10% were prepared from the stock solution for each plant. * Each concentration was tested on 10 larvae. 10 trials were undertaken and the results were noted. * Both plants were deemed effective as far as larval mortality in concerned. Neem extract had a slightly higher mortality rate. 6. Bibliography (Singh et al. 2000, 2004). Pest management in sericulture (2000), Properties and potential of natural pesticide against sericulture pests. Publ. Zool. Soc. India. pp. 200-206 (Singh and Saratchandra, 2002). An Integrated approach in pest management in sericulture, Int. J . Indust. Entomol. 5, 141-151 (Baskaran and Narayanswamy, 1995) Traditional pest control. Caterpillar Publications. Tamil Nadu, India. (Casida, 1983). Development of synthetic insectide from natu ral products. Case History of pyrethroids from pyrethrins. (Schmutterer, 1990). Properties and potential of natural pesticide from Neem tree. Ann. Re

European Politics :: Essays on Politics

Throughout Europe, a complex political structure of government has emerged from the once simple Monarchial rule. These new systems of Government, with respect to specific nation-states, have developed domestic policies that people depend on for daily life. Of these many dependencies is the health care system. The nation-states of Europe are entitled to bring forth and confront these issues, in order to ensure a sense of safety and well being into the lives of everyday citizens. The significance of the health care system is that it is an issue people are always trying to reform and build upon. Working alongside this idea, is the notion that other countries will develop intellectual health care systems from understanding those system already put into effect. This was the case with the German system of insured care, and the subsequent formation of the Hungarian health insurance system. In laying out the design of both systems, it is evident that the Hungarian health care system was bas ed upon the founding principles of the German health care system. Established by Otto von Bismarck in 1883, the German system has been continually extended to reflect the changing assortment of diseases and technological progress. Germany may be the only country in which most beneficiaries of its long-term care system and related expenditures are in community-based rather than institutional settings, according to the authors of the German study. (Moran 77) Germany's attempt to improve coverage for long-term care reached a fever pitch in the early 1990s, when West German policymakers sought to bring means-tested, state-administered long-term care services into its universal health insurance fold. In 1994 the country enacted a universal-coverage social insurance program for long-term care, called Soziale Pflegeversicherung, which was administered by "sickness funds," quasi-public and quasi-private insurers regulated by the national government. Under this program, premiums are uniform-a straight 1.7 percent of salary, split between employers and employees. (Knox 13) Benefits include extensive institutional and home care services. Informal caregivers receive up to four weeks of respite care each year, as well as a pension credit for providing high levels of unpaid services. In 1998 alone, some 550,000 people received pension contributions as caregivers. Germany's program has succeeded in increasing the availability of nursing home and home care services, as well as the number of home care providers, the study authors report. Program costs stayed well below original estimates and led to surpluses of nearly $5 billion.